Characterization of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) concentrations in a community-based sample of infants from Samoa.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent contaminants with documented harmful health effects. Despite increasing research, little attention has been given to studying PFAS contamination in low- and middle-income countries, including Samoa. Using data and biosamples collected through the Foafoaga o le Ola ("Beginning of Life") Study, which recruited a sample of mothers and infants from Samoa, we conducted an exploratory study to describe concentrations of 40 PFAS analytes in infant cord blood collected at birth (n = 66) and infant dried blood spots (DBS) collected at 4 months post-birth (n = 50). Of the 40 PFAS analytes tested, 19 were detected in cord blood, with 10 detected in >50% of samples (PFBA, PFPeA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnA, PFTrDA, PFHxS, PFOS, and 9Cl-PF3ONS); and 12 analytes were detected in DBS, with 3 detected in >50% of samples (PFBA, PFHxS, and PFOS). PFAS concentrations were generally lower than those reported in existing literature, with the exception of PFHxS, which was detected at higher concentrations. In cord blood, we noted suggestive (p < 0.05) or significant (p < 0.006) associations between higher PFHxS and male sex; higher PFPeA and residence in Northwest 'Upolu (NWU) compared to the Apia Urban Area (AUA); lower PFUnA and 9Cl-PF3ONS and greater socioeconomic resources; lower PFOA and higher parity; higher PFDA and higher maternal age; and lower PFUnA, PFTrDA, and 9Cl-PF3ONS and higher maternal BMI. In DBS, we found suggestive (p < 0.05) or significant (p < 0.025) associations between lower PFBA and residence in NWU versus AUA; lower PFBA and PFHxS and higher maternal age; and higher PFBA and higher maternal BMI. Finally, we observed associations between nutrition source at 4 months and DBS PFBA and PFHxS, with formula- or mixed-fed infants having higher concentrations compared to exclusively breastfed infants. This study represents the first characterization of PFAS contamination in Samoa. Additional work in larger samples is needed to identify potentially modifiable determinants of PFAS concentrations, information that is critical for informing environmental and health policy measures.

Male androphilia, fraternal birth order, and female fecundity in Samoa: A 10-y retrospective.

Two separate but related literatures have examined familial correlates of male androphilia (i.e., sexual attraction and arousal to masculine adult males). The fraternal birth order effect (FBOE) is a widely established finding that each biological older brother a male has increased the probability of androphilia 20-35% above baseline rates. Other family demographic variables, such as reproduction by mothers, maternal aunts, and grandmothers, have been used to test evolutionary hypotheses that sexually antagonistic genes lead to androphilia among males, lowering or eliminating reproduction, which is offset by greater reproductive output among their female relatives. These proposed female fecundity effects (FFEs), and the FBOE, have historically been treated as separate yet complementary ways to understand the development and evolution of male androphilia. However, this approach ignores a vital confound within the data. The high overall reproductive output indicative of an FFE results in similar statistical patterns as the FBOE, wherein women with high reproductive output subsequently produce later-born androphilic sons. Thus, examination of the FBOE requires analytic approaches capable of controlling for the FFE, and vice-versa. Here, we present data simultaneously examining the FBOE and FFE for male androphilia in a large dataset collected in Samoa across 10 y of fieldwork, which only shows evidence of the FBOE.

Identifying patient preferences for diabetes care: A protocol for implementing a discrete choice experiment in Samoa.

In Samoa, adult Type 2 diabetes prevalence has increased within the past 30 years. Patient preferences for care are factors known to influence treatment adherence and are associated with reduced disease progression and severity. However, patient preferences for diabetes care, generally, are understudied, and other patient-centered factors such as willingness-to-pay (WTP) for diabetes treatment have never been explored in this setting. Discrete Choice Experiments (DCE) are useful tools to elicit preferences and WTP for healthcare. DCEs present patients with hypothetical scenarios composed of a series of multi-alternative choice profiles made up of attributes and levels. Patients choose a profile based on which attributes and levels may be preferable for them, thereby quantifying and identifying locally relevant patient-centered preferences. This paper presents the protocol for the design, piloting, and implementation of a DCE identifying patient preferences for diabetes care, in Samoa. Using an exploratory sequential mixed methods design, formative data from a literature review and semi-structured interviews with n = 20 Samoan adults living with Type 2 diabetes was used to design a Best-Best DCE instrument. Experimental design procedures were used to reduce the number of choice-sets and balance the instrument. Following pilot testing, the DCE is being administered to n = 450 Samoan adults living with diabetes, along with associated questionnaires, and anthropometrics. Subsequently, we will also be assessing longitudinally how preferences for care change over time. Data will be analyzed using progressive mixed Rank Order Logit models. The results will identify which diabetes care attributes are important to patients (p < 0.05), examine associations between participant characteristics and preference, illuminate the trade-offs participants are willing to make, and the probability of uptake, and WTP for specific attributes and levels. The results from this study will provide integral data useful for designing and adapting efficacious diabetes intervention and treatment approaches in this setting.

Mapping communities as complex adaptive systems: A study of the response to violence against women by communities in Samoa.

This paper explores the concept of communities as complex adaptive systems in the context of violence against women (VAW) prevention. Using thematic network analysis on data from 80 semi-structured interviews with community members in Samoa, we found that communities exhibit many properties of complex adaptive systems. Within nested systems, diverse and dynamic agents interact based on their knowledge and attitudes, which changes over time, leading to emergent and unpredictable outcomes. The functioning of communities and their response to VAW is a product of non-linear and emerging relationships and interactions between systems components at the community level. The approach we propose for conceptualising communities as complex adaptive systems provides a structured method for designing and evaluating community-based interventions that are grounded in the local context and existing resources. With in-depth knowledge of how a community works, interventions can be better equipped to address wicked problems such as VAW.

Climate micro-mobilities as adaptation practice in the Pacific: the case of Samoa.

Recent debates on climate mobilities have largely ignored the dynamics of mobility patterns including short-distance and short-duration circular movements to enhance adaptative capacity and resilience of households and individuals, enabling them to remain in place despite facing increasingly severe climatic risks. This paper explores Pacific Islanders' climate-related mobilities with reference to cases from Samoa. It first conceptualizes Samoan mobility, which is rooted in Samoan culture, norms and worldviews, and then uses this as a framework to examine ways in which people shift and diversify their residential locations for climate-associated reasons. The study employs a comparative case study approach using conversational (the Pacific-originated talanoa-style) interviews with 40 participants in two villages in Samoa-one urban and the other rural. Findings suggest that shifting spatially and temporarily between two residences (a practice called fa'a-'aigalua) occurs not only within the village but across villages. Thereby, villagers reduce the risk of incurring physical harm from climate-related disasters, while minimizing the risk of cultural harm from place detachment. Our study challenges the discourse of 'vulnerable Pacific Islanders' by demonstrating the adaptability of Samoans to changing socio-ecological and climatic circumstances and their ability to develop a variety of climate resilience strategies, including micro-mobilities and circular migration. This article is part of the theme issue 'Climate change adaptation needs a science of culture'.

Scabies prevalence after ivermectin-based mass drug administration for lymphatic filariasis, Samoa 2018-2019.

BACKGROUND: Scabies is a common skin infestation caused by the Sarcoptes scabei mite. Ivermectin, one of three drugs used in mass drug administration (MDA) for lymphatic filariasis, is also effective for treating scabies. Ivermectin-based MDA was first conducted in Samoa in August 2018, with ivermectin being offered to those aged ≥5 years. Here, we report scabies prevalence in Samoa after MDA. METHODS: We conducted household surveys 1.5-3.5 months (Survey 1) and 6-8 months (Survey 2) after the 2018 MDA in 35 primary sampling units. We conducted clinical examination for scabies-like rash and used International Alliance for the Control of Scabies classification criteria. We estimated scabies prevalence by age, gender and region. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with prevalence. RESULTS: We surveyed 2868 people (499 households) and 2796 people (544 households) aged 0-75 years in Surveys 1 and 2, respectively. Scabies prevalence increased from 2.4% (95% CI 2.1-2.7%) to 4.4% (95% CI 4.0-4.9%) between surveys. Scabies was associated with younger age (0-4 years: aOR 3.5 [2.9-4.2]; 5-15 years: aOR 1.6 [1.4-1.8] compared to ≥16 years), female gender (aOR 1.2 [95% CI 1.1-1.4]; region (aOR range from 1.4 [1.1-1.7] to 2.5 [2.1-3.1] between regions), large households (aOR 2.6 [2.0-3.4] households ≥13), and not taking MDA in 2018 (aOR 1.3 [95% CI 1.1-1.6]). CONCLUSIONS: We found moderate prevalence of scabies in two population-representative surveys conducted within 8 months of the 2018 MDA for lymphatic filariasis. Prevalence appeared to increase between the surveys, and ongoing surveillance is recommended, particularly in young children.

Knowledge and attitudes of female caregivers in Samoa to childhood hearing loss and hearing services.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the knowledge and attitudes of 150 female caregivers in Samoa to childhood hearing loss and hearing services, and to compare findings between urban (n = 100) and rural-dwelling (n = 50) caregivers. METHODS: A semi-structured interview using a 26-item questionnaire was administered to participants in the Samoan language. Participants were required to respond "yes", "no", or "unsure". RESULTS: Highest awareness of aetiology of childhood hearing loss was found for otitis media (88.7%), followed by noise exposure (64.7%) and family history (38%). Highest awareness of public health measures that may prevent/reduce otitis media was found for routine childhood immunizations (74.7%) and breast-feeding for first 6 months of life (69.3%). Overall, 40% of Samoan caregivers agreed that curses may cause childhood hearing loss. There was overwhelming support for community-based hearing services for newborns/infants (98%) and school students (97.3%). CONCLUSIONS: There is positive support for community-based hearing health services for children among female caregivers of Samoa. There was high awareness of otitis media as a major cause of childhood hearing loss, as well as good knowledge of public health measures that reduce/minimise the risk of otitis media.

Love Shouldn't Hurt - E le Saua le Alofa: Co-designing a theory of change for preventing violence against women in Samoa.

Despite the widespread adoption of Theories of Change (ToC) for programme evaluation, the process of collaboratively developing these theories is rarely outlined or critical analysed, limiting broader methodological discussions on co-production. We developed a ToC as part of E le Saua le Alofa ('Love Shouldn't Hurt') - a participatory peer-research study to prevent violence against women (VAW) in Samoa. The ToC was developed in four phases: (1) semi-structured interviews with village representatives (n = 20); (2) peer-led semi-structured interviews with community members (n = 60), (3) community conversations with 10 villages (n = 217) to discuss causal mechanisms for preventing VAW, and (4) finalising the ToC pathways. Several challenges were identified, including conflicting understandings of VAW as a problem; the linearity of the ToC framework in contrast to intersecting realities of people's lived experiences; the importance of emotional engagements, and theory development as a contradictory and incomplete process. The process also raised opportunities including a deeper exploration of local meaning-making, iterative engagement with local mechanisms of violence prevention, and clear evidence of ownership by communities in developing a uniquely Samoan intervention to prevent VAW. This study highlights a clear need for ToCs to be complemented by indigenous frameworks and methodologies in post-colonial settings such as Samoa.

Pollution and ecological risk assessments for heavy metals in coastal, river, and road-deposited sediments from Apia City in Upolu Island, Samoa.

This study was the first to investigate the pollution and ecological risks of heavy metals in coastal, river/stream and road-deposited sediments (RDS) from Apia in Samoa. Cr and Ni concentrations in sediment samples were higher than those of other metals. River sediments and RDS had relatively high EF values around the intensive commercial areas, with a moderate to significant enrichment of Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb. The results indicate that Cr and Ni have a natural origin from volcanic parent materials, while Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb originated from anthropogenic activities, such as traffic emissions and the discharge of municipal wastewater. The assessments of pollution and ecological risk revealed that coastal sediments adjacent to the river are anthropogenically contaminated and present a moderate ecological risk. This study demonstrates that metals that have accumulated in the urban impermeable layer and river/stream bed have flowed into the coastal environment through runoff.

Gearing to success with national breastfeeding programmes: The Becoming Breastfeeding Friendly (BBF) initiative experience.

Evidence-based policy toolboxes are essential for decision makers to effectively invest in and scale up maternal-child health and nutrition programs, and breastfeeding is no exception. This special issue focuses on the experiences implementing the Becoming Breastfeeding Friendly (BBF) toolbox in England, Scotland, and Wales. BBF is an initiative that includes a toolbox for decision making based on the Complex Adaptive System-based Breastfeeding Gear Model. The BBF initiative experience in Great Britain presented in this special issue illustrates how versatile BBF is as it can be readily adapted to the specific application context. In this instance one country, England was trained by the Yale School of Public Health team that developed BBF. England, in turn, trained and assisted Scotland and Wales with the implementation and oversight of BBF in those countries. The positive experience implementing BBF in Great Britain is fully consistent with findings related to this initiative in other countries with contrasting economic, social, political and health care systems; including Germany, Ghana, Mexico, Myanmar, and Samoa. In all instances BBF has led to breastfeeding policy improvements with strong implications for enabling breastfeeding environments including maternity benefits, workforce development, the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative and behavior change communication campaigns. In conclusion, BBF is a powerful tool to help guide the effective scaling up of evidence-based programmes to advance breastfeeding protection, promotion and support globally.

The Vave campaign: impact evaluation of a cancer awareness raising multi-media campaign in Samoa.

Cancer is a leading cause of premature death and disability in Samoa. Recognizing the importance of symptom awareness and early detection, the Samoa Cancer Society (SCS) developed the 'Vave' (quickly) campaign as the first multi-media cancer awareness campaign in Samoa. The campaign adopted a three-pronged community engagement approach including mass media; printed resources; and community outreach at culturally appropriate locations including churches, villages and schools. The campaign promoted three key messages: detect signs and symptoms quickly; quickly see a doctor; and quickly call SCS. To measure impact, data were collected using several methods around the outreach education sessions (pre- and post-surveys), campaign recall (survey) and Vave-related enquiries received by SCS. The findings revealed the campaign was effective in increasing awareness of cancer and importance of early detection demonstrated through community recall of campaign messages, increased enquiries to SCS and improved knowledge. However, it is of note that almost 30% of campaign recall respondents stated they were unsure or would not see a doctor if concerned about a sign of cancer. The reasons given being a lack of knowledge, lack of trust in hospitals and preference for traditional healing. This suggests more targeted culturally sensitive strategies are needed including partnering with traditional healers. Further, advocacy efforts are needed to address the structural barriers to cancer detection and treatment together with continuing education around causes and symptoms of cancer targeting the hard-to-reach communities in Samoa.

Cancer is a number one killer and cause of disability in Samoa. Identifying cancer early can lead to better health outcomes. Ability to understand signs and symptoms of cancer among community members is crucial in facilitating early detection. Recognizing this, the Samoa Cancer Society (SCS) developed the first ever multi-media cancer awareness campaign in Samoa­the 'Vave' which means 'quickly'. The campaign used mass media; printed resources; and community outreach to spread three key messages: detect signs and symptoms quickly; quickly see a doctor; and quickly call SCS. To understand how effective the campaign was, data were collected through surveys and statistics on Vave-related calls to SCS. The campaign was effective in increasing awareness of cancer and importance of early detection demonstrated through community recall of campaign messages, increased enquiries to SCS and improved knowledge. Efforts are needed to address the structural barriers to cancer early detection and continuing education targeting the hard-to-reach communities in Samoa.

Spatial-temporal and phylogenetic analyses of epidemiologic data to help understand the modes of transmission of endemic typhoid fever in Samoa.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) is either widely distributed or proximally transmitted via fecally-contaminated food or water to cause typhoid fever. In Samoa, where endemic typhoid fever has persisted over decades despite water quality and sanitation improvements, the local patterns of S. Typhi circulation remain unclear. From April 2018-June 2020, epidemiologic data and GPS coordinates were collected during household investigations of 260 acute cases of typhoid fever, and 27 asymptomatic shedders of S. Typhi were detected among household contacts. Spatial and temporal distributions of cases were examined using Average Nearest Neighbor and space-time hotspot analyses. In rural regions, infections occurred in sporadic, focal clusters contrasting with persistent, less clustered cases in the Apia Urban Area. Restrictions to population movement during nationwide lockdowns in 2019-2020 were associated with marked reductions of cases. Phylogenetic analyses of isolates with whole genome sequences (n = 186) revealed one dominant genotype 3.5.4 (n = 181/186) that contains three Samoa-exclusive sub-lineages: 3.5.4.1, 3.5.4.2, and 3.5.4.3. Variables of patient sex, age, and geographic region were examined by phylogenetic groupings, and significant differences (p<0.05) associated genetically-similar isolates in urban areas with working ages (20-49 year olds), and in rural areas with age groups typically at home (<5, 50+). Isolates from asymptomatic shedders were among all three sub-lineages. Whole genome sequencing provided evidence of bacterial genetic similarity, which corroborated 10/12 putative epidemiologic linkages among cases and asymptomatic shedders, as well as 3/3 repeat positives (presumed relapses), with a median of one single nucleotide polymorphism difference. These findings highlight various patterns of typhoid transmission in Samoa that differ between urban and rural regions as well as genomic subtypes. Asymptomatic shedders, detectable only through household investigations, are likely an important reservoir and mobile agent of infection. This study advances a "Samoan S. Typhi framework" that supports current and future typhoid surveillance and control efforts in Samoa.

Intra- and Intersexual Mate Competition in Two Cultures : A Comparison of Women's Response to Mate Competition with Women and Gender-Nonbinary Males in Samoa and among the Istmo Zapotec.

The present study examined women's mate competition tactics in response to female and feminine-male rivals in two cultures in which competition against both occurs. In Samoa and the Istmo Zapotec (Southern Mexico), women not only compete with other women (intrasexually) but also compete with rival feminine males (intersexually) in order to access/retain the same masculine men as sexual/romantic partners. Using a mixed-method paradigm, women were asked about their experiences of intra- and intersexual mate competition, and these narratives were recorded. The tactics reportedly employed by participants, and those attributed to mate competitors, were categorized according to established taxonomies of mate competition tactics, and their frequencies compared. Within-culture, the likelihood that participant women had ever experienced intra- and intersexual mate competition did not differ. Furthermore, participants reported a similar pattern of behavioral tactics whether their rival was another woman or a feminine male. These included benefit provisioning tactics during mate acquisition and cost-inflicting tactics during mate retention. Similarly, the mate competition tactics attributed to rival women and rival feminine males bore a striking resemblance, focused on enticing target men. Results highlight the mate competition tactics employed by women outside of a Euro-American context, and the way cultural factors impact mating landscapes presumed to be exclusively heterosexual. The presence of feminine males, alongside masculine men's willingness to engage in sexual activity with them, induces women in such cultures to compete intersexually in comparable ways to intrasexual competition with rival women.

Netball Shoots for Physical and Mental Wellbeing in Samoa: A Natural Experiment.

Sport-for-development programs claim to address key determinants of recreational physical activity participation and subsequent development outcomes in low-income settings. We conducted a natural experiment with pre-post measures taken from women in the 12 villages in Samoa, some of which voluntarily participated in the sport-for-development intervention. The intervention comprised a six-week netball league delivered by local volunteers who attended coaching workshops, received ongoing support from the national governing body and were provided with infrastructure and equipment to conduct local training sessions. Changes in netball participation, recreational physical activity, body composition, mental wellbeing and socio-ecological determinants of physical activity were compared between intervention and comparison villages using a univariate ANOVA. The intervention reached women who participated in little recreational physical activity and had poor physical and mental wellbeing. Program uptake was higher in villages with the strongest social support for netball participation. Local social support and capacity to independently organize netball activities increased. There were concurrent improvements in netball participation, physical activity levels, mental wellbeing and body weight in the intervention villages. Our findings support scaling-up of the intervention in similar settings but preceding this with formative evaluation to identify low active communities that are "primed" to participate in the proposed activity.

CREBRF missense variant rs373863828 has both direct and indirect effects on type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose in Polynesian peoples living in Samoa and Aotearoa New Zealand.

INTRODUCTION: The minor allele of a missense variant, rs373863828, in CREBRF is associated with higher body mass index (BMI), lower fasting glucose, and lower odds of type 2 diabetes. rs373863828 is common in Pacific Island populations (minor allele frequency (MAF) 0.096-0.259) but rare in non-Pacific Island populations (MAF <0.001). We examined the cross-sectional associations between BMI and rs373863828 in type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose with a large sample of adults of Polynesian ancestries from Samoa, American Samoa, and Aotearoa New Zealand, and estimated the direct and indirect (via BMI) effects of rs373863828 on type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We regressed type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose on BMI and rs373863828 stratified by obesity, regressed type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose on BMI stratified by rs373863828 genotype, and assessed the effects of rs373863828 on type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose with path analysis. The regression analyses were completed separately in four samples that were recruited during different time periods between 1990 and 2010 and then the results were meta-analyzed. All samples were pooled for the path analysis. RESULTS: Association of BMI with type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose may be greater in those without obesity (OR=7.77, p=0.015 and ß=0.213, p=9.53×10-5, respectively) than in those with obesity (OR=5.01, p=1.12×10-9 and ß=0.162, p=5.63×10-6, respectively). We did not observe evidence of differences in the association of BMI with type 2 diabetes or fasting glucose by genotype. In the path analysis, the minor allele has direct negative (lower odds of type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose) and indirect positive (higher odds of type 2 diabetes and fasting glucose) effects on type 2 diabetes risk and fasting glucose, with the indirect effects mediated through a direct positive effect of rs373863828 on BMI. CONCLUSIONS: There may be a stronger effect of BMI on fasting glucose in Polynesian individuals without obesity than in those with obesity. Carrying the rs373863828 minor allele does not decouple higher BMI from higher odds of type 2 diabetes.

The prevalence of chronic kidney disease in Samoans living in Auckland, New Zealand.

AIMS: Pacific peoples have higher rates of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and are five times more likely to commence kidney replacement therapy compared with New Zealand (NZ) Europeans. As the majority live Auckland, this study looked at the prevalence of CKD in two Auckland Pacific Island health providers caring for a large proportion of Pacific peoples, of which almost 50% are Samoan, as well as NZ Europeans. METHODS: De-identified information was requested on individuals who had two or more CKD tests (serum creatinine and urinary albumin creatinine ratios) more than 3 months apart. CKD prevalence across different demographic groups was determined. Logistic regression was used to look at associations of known risk factors and CKD. RESULTS: Data from 25 127 patients was evaluated. Of the total sample, 7451 individuals identified as Samoans. The prevalence of CKD amongst all Samoans in this sample was 17.8% increasing to 36.3% in those Samoans that had been tested for CKD. The prevalence of CKD in this total sample was 13% increasing to 27.5% considering only those who had CKD testing. The odds of Samoans having CKD (adjOR: 1.9 [95%CI 1.7, 2.2]), all other Pacific Island ethnicities identified and NZ Maori (adjOR:1.5 [95%CI 1.3, 1.8]), were increased compared with non-Maori-non-Pacific (likelihood p value <.001). CONCLUSION: We report the high prevalence of CKD (15.9%-33.4%) in Samoans living in New Zealand. This reveals an urgent need for further studies to develop strategies to prevent or reduce the development of kidney failure and premature death.

'When they do that kind of bad things to me, I feel that they encourage me to be strong and be who I am': How transfeminine people in Samoa, Tonga and the Cook Islands experience discrimination, acceptance and a sense of place.

Data on transfeminine participants from a 2016 Pacific Multi-Country Mapping and Behavioural Study evidence high levels of verbal, physical and sexual abuse, as well as discrimination. In interviews from the same study, accounts of hardship were frequently countered with assertions of happiness and talk of acceptance. This paper analyses these accounts and, in particular, the ways in which interviewees viewed and managed their place in society. Data provide insights into the factors that support transfeminine occupation of a positive place in some contemporary Pacific settings, highlighting negotiation between modern and traditional, and local and global, cultures and values.

Functional genomics and metabolomics advance the ethnobotany of the Samoan traditional medicine "matalafi".

The leaf homogenate of Psychotria insularum is widely used in Samoan traditional medicine to treat inflammation associated with fever, body aches, swellings, wounds, elephantiasis, incontinence, skin infections, vomiting, respiratory infections, and abdominal distress. However, the bioactive components and underlying mechanisms of action are unknown. We used chemical genomic analyses in the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast) to identify and characterize an iron homeostasis mechanism of action in the traditional medicine as an unfractionated entity to emulate its traditional use. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the homogenate identified two flavonol glycosides, rutin and nicotiflorin, each binding iron in an ion-dependent molecular networking metabolomics analysis. Translating results to mammalian immune cells and traditional application, the iron chelator activity of the P. insularum homogenate or rutin decreased proinflammatory and enhanced anti-inflammatory cytokine responses in immune cells. Together, the synergistic power of combining traditional knowledge with chemical genomics, metabolomics, and bioassay-guided fractionation provided molecular insight into a relatively understudied Samoan traditional medicine and developed methodology to advance ethnobotany.

Control and elimination of lymphatic filariasis in Oceania: Prevalence, geographical distribution, mass drug administration, and surveillance in Samoa, 1998-2017.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a major public health problem globally and in the Pacific Region. The Global Programme to Eliminate LF has made great progress but LF is persistent and resurgent in some Pacific countries and territories. Samoa remains endemic for LF despite elimination efforts through multiple two-drug mass drug administrations (MDA) since 1965, including renewed elimination efforts started in 1999 under the Pacific Programme for Elimination of LF (PacELF). Despite eight rounds of national and two rounds of subnational MDA under PacELF, Samoa failed transmission assessment surveys (TAS) in all three evaluation units in 2017. In 2018, Samoa was the first to distribute countrywide triple-drug MDA using ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine (DEC), and albendazole. This paper provides a review of MDAs and historical survey results from 1998 to 2017 in Samoa and highlights lessons learnt from LF elimination efforts, including challenges and potential ways to overcome them to successfully achieve elimination.